Helminthic infections afflict over 1.5 billion people worldwide, while Mycobacterium tuberculosis infects one third of the world's population, resulting in 2 million deaths per year. Although tuberculosis and helminthic infections coexist in many parts of the world, and it has been demonstrated that the T-helper 2 and T-regulatory cell responses elicited by helminths can affect the ability of the host to control mycobacterial infection, it is still unclear whether helminth infections in fact affect tuberculosis disease. In this review article, current progress in the knowledge about the immunomodulation induced by helminths to diminish the protective immune responses to bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination is reviewed, and the knowledge about the types of immune responses modulated by helminths and the consequences for tuberculosis are summarized. In addition, recent data supporting the significant reduction of both M. tuberculosis antigen-specific Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR9 expression, and pro-inflammatory cytokine responses to TLR2 and TLR9 ligands in individuals with M. tuberculosis and helminth co-infection were discussed. This examination will allow to improve understanding of the immune responses to mycobacterial infection and also be of great relevance in combating human tuberculosis.
Citations
Citations to this article as recorded by
Advances in tuberculosis co-infections: Mechanisms, diagnosis, and therapeutics Shixiong He, Changjiao Luan, Jiaqi Gao, Feng Lu, Fang Tian, Muh Fauzi, She Zhang, Yinsong Chen, Xinlong He Microbial Pathogenesis.2026; 210: 108131. CrossRef
Paradoxical Use of Benralizumab in Reactive Hypereosinophilia from Toxocariasis and Tuberculosis Co-Infection—Case Report and Literature Review Nicoleta Sorina Bertici, Talida Georgiana Cut, Amalia Ridichie, Andrei Raul Manzur, Razvan Adrian Bertici International Journal of Molecular Sciences.2025; 26(17): 8117. CrossRef
Spatial associations of Hansen’s disease and schistosomiasis in endemic regions of Minas Gerais, Brazil Jessica L. Stephens, Lucia A. O. Fraga, José A. Ferreira, Laura De Mondesert, Uriel Kitron, Julie A. Clennon, Jessica K. Fairley, Georgios Pappas PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases.2024; 18(12): e0012682. CrossRef
Immunological reactivity and natural resistance in patients with tuberculosis, toxocariasis and tuberculosis associated with toxocariasis Angela Guila Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova. Medical Sciences.2024; 77(3): 239. CrossRef
Clinical Analysis of the Renal Protective Effect of GLP-1 on Diabetic Patients Based on Edge Detection Jing Wang, Yang Wang, Ping Pang, Xiaomeng Jia, Xu Yan, Zhaohui Lv, Bhagyaveni M.A Journal of Healthcare Engineering.2022; 2022: 1. CrossRef
Helminth infections and immunosenescence: The friend of my enemy Amir Abdoli, Hoda Mirzaian Ardakani Experimental Gerontology.2020; 133: 110852. CrossRef
Fasciola hepatica coinfection modifies the morphological and immunological features of Echinococcus granulosus cysts in cattle Christian Hidalgo, Caroll Stoore, Marcela Hernández, Rodolfo Paredes Veterinary Research.2020;[Epub] CrossRef
Intestinal parasites and HIV in Ethiopian tuberclosis patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis Getenet Dessie, Ayenew Negesse, Fasil Wagnew, Desalegne Amare, Balew Zeleke Tiruneh, Henok Mulugeta, Berhanu Abebaw Mekonen, Dessalegn Haile, Tilksew Ayalew, Tesfa Dejenie Habtewold Current Therapeutic Research.2020; 93: 100603. CrossRef
Neglected Factors Affecting the Burden of Tuberculosis Amir Abdoli, Mirza Ali Mofazzal Jahromi Archives of Medical Research.2019; 50(1): 19. CrossRef
Seroprevalence and risk factors for Toxocara infection among children in a rural community in Fars province, southern Iran Bahador Sarkari, Roya Alirezaei, Akram Layegh Gigloo, Zahra Rezaei, Fataneh Mikaeili, Mohammad Saleh Bahreini, Mohammad Fararouei Parasite Immunology.2018;[Epub] CrossRef
Design, Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Some Triazole Schiff’s Base Derivatives as Potential Antitubercular Agents Asma A. Sager, Zainab S. Abood, Wedad M. El-Amary, Salah M. Bensaber, Inass A. Al-Sadawe, Nouri B. Ermeli, Salah B. Mohamed, Mohamed Al-Forgany, Ibrahim A. Mrema, Mabrouk Erhuma, Anton Hermann, Abdul M. Gbaj The Open Medicinal Chemistry Journal.2018; 12(1): 48. CrossRef
Parasitismo intestinal y tuberculosis Anuar Alonso Cedeño-Burbano, Ronal Fredy Cerón-Ortega, Carlos Eberth Pacichana-Agudelo, David Andrés Muñoz-García, Gerardo Alfonso Galeano-Triviño, Diana Catalina Cardona-Gómez, William Andrés Manquillo-Arias, Regina Victoria Plaza-Rivera Revista de la Facultad de Medicina.2017; 65(4): 673. CrossRef
Molecular events by which dendritic cells promote Th2 immune protection in helmith infection Patricia Méndez-Samperio Infectious Diseases.2016; 48(10): 715. CrossRef
Toll-like receptor signaling in parasitic infections Dalia S Ashour Expert Review of Clinical Immunology.2015; 11(6): 771. CrossRef
Prevention of Type 1 Diabetes Through Parasite Infection Patricia Méndez-Samperio, Jorge Luis de-la-Rosa-Arana Immunotherapy.2015; 7(6): 595. CrossRef
Co-infection of tuberculosis and parasitic diseases in humans: a systematic review Xin-Xu Li, Xiao-Nong Zhou Parasites & Vectors.2013;[Epub] CrossRef
First
Prev
