Parasites, Hosts and Diseases

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Case Reports

Pathological fracture induced by Halicephalobus gingivalis (Nematoda: Rhabditida) in a horse limb: Ticiana Meireles Sousa, Hugo Shisei Toma, Antonio de Pádua Lima, Antonio Carlos Cunha Lacreta Junior, Maira Meira Nunes, Ana Paula Cassiano da Silva, Daniel Wouters, Adriana Silva Albuquerque, Mary Suzan Varaschin, Djeison Lutier Raymundo, Claudia Dias Monteiro Toma, Fernando Arévalo Batista; Parasites Hosts Dis 2024;62(1):131-138.
Published online February 23, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/PHD.23066

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Halicephalobus gingivalis is a free-living nematode that occasionally causes infections in horses. We report a rare case of limb fracture of horse caused by infection with H. gingivalis. An 8-year-old mare was referred to the Veterinary Hospital of the Federal University of Lavras with claudication grade 5 of the right hind limb, that had been started 3 months ago. The patient had aseptic arthritis in the tarsal joint and edema that extended to the quartile. The radiographic examination showed punctate osteolysis with exacerbation of bone trabeculation along the calcaneus, talus, proximal epiphysis of the third metatarsal and distal epiphysis of the tibia. Treatment for arthritis was initiated, and the animal showed a slight improvement in limb function. However, 21 days after hospitalization, due to a comminuted fracture of the tibia, it was euthanized. At necropsy, yellowish masses were found from the metatarsal to the tibia, and around the tarsal bones and joint. Similar masses were also found in the left kidney. Numerous nematodes compatible with H. gingivalis were identified. This is the first description of a pathological fracture caused by H. gingivalis infection in an equine limb.

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Halicephalobus gingivalis infection in equids
Simone Peletto
UK-Vet Equine.2024; 8(6): 286. CrossRef

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A case of hepatic anisakidosis caused by Anisakis pegreffii mimicking liver cancer: Minoru Yamada, Fumi Murakoshi, Hisashi Ikoma, Osamu Inamori, Akio Yanagisawa, Eiichi Konishi; Parasites Hosts Dis 2023;61(3):292-297.
Published online August 21, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/PHD.23055

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Extra-gastrointestinal anisakidosis is rare. We herein report an Anisakis pegreffii infection in a patient with hepatic anisakidosis diagnosed based on its molecular identification. A 71-year-old male patient had a hepatic tumor presenting as a low-density area of 20 mm in diameter in segment 6 of the liver on abdominal ultrasonography, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging. The surgically resected pathological specimen revealed a necrotizing eosinophilic granuloma containing nematode larvae, possibly an Anisakis larva. Molecular and phylogenetic analysis demonstrated Anisakis larvae belonging to A. pegreffii. The present results will help identify and characterize unknown Anisakis species in histological sections.

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Anisakidae and Anisakidosis: A Public Health Perspective
Diana Nonković, Vanja Tešić, Vida Šimat, Svjetlana Karabuva, Alan Medić, Jerko Hrabar
Pathogens.2025; 14(3): 217. CrossRef
Screening of Anisakis-Related Allergies and Associated Factors in a Mediterranean Community Characterized by High Seafood Consumption
Santo Fruscione, Maria Barrale, Maurizio Zarcone, Davide Alba, Barbara Ravazzolo, Miriam Belluzzo, Rosa Onida, Gaetano Cammilleri, Antonella Costa, Vincenzo Ferrantelli, Alessandra Savatteri, Daniele Domenico De Bella, Salvatore Pipitone, Alida D’Atria, A
Foods.2024; 13(17): 2821. CrossRef

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Original Article

Ameliorative Effect of Bone Marrow-Derived Stem Cells on Injured Liver of Mice Infected with Schistosoma mansoni: Magda M. El-Mahdi, Wafaa A. Mansour, Olfat Hammam, Noha A. Mehana, Taghreed M. Hussein; Korean J Parasitol 2014;52(2):151-162.
Published online April 18, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2014.52.2.151

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The technique of stem cells or hepatocytes transplantation has recently improved in order to bridge the time before whole-organ liver transplantation. In the present study, unfractionated bone marrow stem cells (BMSCs) were harvested from the tibial and femoral marrow compartments of male mice, which were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) with and without hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), and then transplanted into Schistosoma mansoni-infected female mice on their 8th week post-infection. Mice were sacrificed monthly until the third month of bone marrow transplantation, serum was collected, and albumin concentration, ALT, AST, and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activities were assayed. On the other hand, immunohistopathological and immunohistochemical changes of granuloma size and number, collagen content, and cells expressing OV-6 were detected for identification of liver fibrosis. BMSCs were shown to differentiate into hepatocyte-like cells. Serum ALT, AST, and ALP were markedly reduced in the group of mice treated with BMSCs than in the untreated control group. Also, granuloma showed a marked decrease in size and number as compared to the BMSCs untreated group. Collagen content showed marked decrease after the third month of treatment with BMSCs. On the other hand, the expression of OV-6 increased detecting the presence of newly formed hepatocytes after BMSCs treatment. BMSCs with or without HGF infusion significantly enhanced hepatic regeneration in S. mansoni-induced fibrotic liver model and have pathologic and immunohistopathologic therapeutic effects. Also, this new therapeutic trend could generate new hepatocytes to improve the overall liver functions.

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Anti-fibrotic Effect of Oral Versus Intraperitoneal Administration of Gold Nanoparticles in Hepatic Schistosoma mansoni-Infected Mice
Shahira Abdelaziz Ali Ahmed, Samer Eid Mohamed Gad, Omima Mohamed Eida, Laila Mohamed Makhlouf
Acta Parasitologica.2024; 69(1): 190. CrossRef
The Role of Praziquantel in the Prevention and Treatment of Fibrosis Associated with Schistosomiasis: A Review
Xuehua Niu, Tao Hu, Ye Hong, Xiaoyan Li, Yuzhou Shen, Wei Wang
Journal of Tropical Medicine.2022; 2022: 1. CrossRef
Cell therapy as a new approach on hepatic fibrosis of murine model of Schistosoma mansoni-infection
Muslimah Alsulami, Rewaida Abdel-Gaber
Acta Parasitologica.2021; 66(1): 136. CrossRef
hUCMSC-extracellular vesicles downregulated hepatic stellate cell activation and reduced liver injury in S. japonicum-infected mice
Liyang Dong, Yanan Pu, Xiaojun Chen, Xin Qi, Lina Zhang, Lei Xu, Wei Li, Yongbin Ma, Sha Zhou, Jifeng Zhu, Yalin Li, Xuefeng Wang, Chuan Su
Stem Cell Research & Therapy.2020;[Epub] CrossRef
Systemic Injection of RPE65-Programmed Bone Marrow-Derived Cells Prevents Progression of Chronic Retinal Degeneration
Xiaoping Qi, S. Louise Pay, Yuanqing Yan, James Thomas, Alfred S. Lewin, Lung-Ji Chang, Maria B. Grant, Michael E. Boulton
Molecular Therapy.2017; 25(4): 917. CrossRef
Therapeutic Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cells on Early and Late Experimental Hepatic Schistosomiasis Model
Shahinaz F. El-Shennawy, Heba E. Abdel Aaty, Nehal A. Radwan, Dina M. Abdel-Hameed, Yosra H. Alam-Eldin, Ayman M. El-Ashkar, Fatma A. Abu-Zahra
Journal of Parasitology.2015; 101(5): 587. CrossRef

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Case Report

Fatal Balamuthia Amebic Encephalitis in a Healthy Child: A Case Report with Review of Survival Cases: A. Krasaelap, S. Prechawit, J. Chansaenroj, P. Punyahotra, T. Puthanakit, K. Chomtho, S. Shuangshoti, J. Amornfa, Y. Poovorawan; Korean J Parasitol 2013;51(3):335-341.
Published online June 30, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2013.51.3.335

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Balamuthia mandrillaris is one of the 4 amebas in fresh water and soil that cause diseases in humans. Granulomatous amebic encephalitis (GAE), caused by B. mandrillaris, is a rare but life-threatening condition. A 4-year-old, previously healthy, Thai girl presented with progressive headache and ataxia for over a month. Neuroimaging studies showed an infiltrative mass at the right cerebellar hemisphere mimicking a malignant cerebellar tumor. The pathological finding after total mass removal revealed severe necrotizing inflammation, with presence of scattered amebic trophozoites. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) obtained from lumbar puncture showed evidence of non-specific inflammation without identifiable organisms. A combination of pentamidine, sulfasalazine, fluconazole, and clarithromycin had been initiated promptly before PCR confirmed the diagnosis of Balamuthia amebic encephalitis (BAE). The patient showed initial improvement after the surgery and combined medical treatment, but gradually deteriorated and died of multiple organ failure within 46 days upon admission despite early diagnosis and treatment. In addition to the case, 10 survivors of BAE reported in the PubMed database were briefly reviewed in an attempt to identify the possible factors leading to survival of the patients diagnosed with this rare disease.

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Drug susceptibility of a clinical isolate of Balamuthia mandrillaris , a pathogenic free-living amoeba
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Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
The role of plasma metagenomic sequencing in identification of Balamuthia mandrillaris encephalitis
Sarah Y. Edminster, Ryan W. Rebbe, Christopher Khatchadourian, Kyle M. Hurth, Anna J. Mathew, Julie Huss-Bawab, Mark S. Shiroishi, Devin Clark, Andrew P. Norgan, Susan M. Butler-Wu, Annie Hiniker
Acta Neuropathologica Communications.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
A Novel Balamuthia Lineage Causing Fatal Granulomatous Amoebic Encephalitis in an Immunocompetent Infant
Zhongqiu Teng, Linlin Liu, Tianming Chen, Junrong Liang, Xingfeng Yao, Na Zhao, Fengmao Zhao, Hailang Sun, Lijuan Wang, Quan Wang, Gang Liu, Tian Qin
International Journal of Infectious Diseases.2025; 161: 108063. CrossRef
Balamuthia Amebic Encephalitis Cured and Discharged
Benda Qin, Liyan Jia, Jian Chen, Wei Liu
Journal of Craniofacial Surgery.2024; 35(6): e496. CrossRef
Non-granulomatous meningoencephalitis with Balamuthia mandrillaris mimicking a tumor: First confirmed case from Pakistan
Zanib Javed, Mustafa Mushtaq Hussain, Najia Ghanchi, Ahmed Gilani, S. Ather Enam
Surgical Neurology International.2024; 15: 238. CrossRef
Diagnosing Balamuthia mandrillaris amebic meningoencephalitis in a 64-year-old woman from the Southwest of China
Suhua Yao, Xiaoting Chen, Lian Qian, Shizheng Sun, Chunjing Zhao, Zongkai Bai, Zhaofang Chen, Youcong Wu
Parasites, Hosts and Diseases.2023; 61(2): 183. CrossRef
Phenotypic assay for cytotoxicity assessment of Balamuthia mandrillaris against human neurospheroids
Narisara Whangviboonkij, Worakamol Pengsart, Zhenzhong Chen, Seokgyu Han, Sungsu Park, Kasem Kulkeaw
Frontiers in Microbiology.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
Diagnosis of Balamuthia mandrillaris Encephalitis by Thymine–Adenine Cloning Using Universal Eukaryotic Primers
Ju Yeong Kim, Myung-Hee Yi, Myungjun Kim, Joon-Sup Yeom, Hyun Dong Yoo, Seong Min Kim, Tai-Soon Yong
Annals of Laboratory Medicine.2022; 42(2): 196. CrossRef
A patient with granulomatous amoebic encephalitis caused by Balamuthia mandrillaris survived with two excisions and medication
Limei Peng, Quan Zhou, Yu Wu, Xiaoli Cao, Zili Lv, Minghua Su, Yachun Yu, Wen Huang
BMC Infectious Diseases.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
Cutaneous balamuthiasis: A clinicopathological study
Patricia Alvarez, Carlos Torres-Cabala, Eduardo Gotuzzo, Francisco Bravo
JAAD International.2022; 6: 51. CrossRef
Encephalomyelitis Caused by Balamuthia mandrillaris in a Woman With Breast Cancer: A Case Report and Review of the Literature
Juan Hu, Yiqi Zhang, Yongwei Yu, Huili Yu, Siruo Guo, Ding Shi, Jianqin He, Chi Hu, Jiqi Yang, Xueling Fang, Yonghong Xiao
Frontiers in Immunology.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
An Optical and Chemiluminescence Assay for Assessing the Cytotoxicity of Balamuthia mandrillaris against Human Neurospheroids
Worakamol Pengsart, Kasem Kulkeaw
Bioengineering.2022; 9(7): 330. CrossRef
Distribution and Current State of Molecular Genetic Characterization in Pathogenic Free-Living Amoebae
Alejandro Otero-Ruiz, Leobardo Daniel Gonzalez-Zuñiga, Libia Zulema Rodriguez-Anaya, Luis Fernando Lares-Jiménez, Jose Reyes Gonzalez-Galaviz, Fernando Lares-Villa
Pathogens.2022; 11(10): 1199. CrossRef
Diagnostic evaluation of fatal Balamuthia mandrillaris meningoencephalitis in a captive Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) with identification of potential environmental source and evidence of chronic exposure
Shawna J. Hawkins, Jason D. Struthers, Kristen Phair, Ibne Karim M. Ali, Shantanu Roy, Bonnie Mull, Gary West
Primates.2021; 62(1): 51. CrossRef
Current report on the prevalence of free-living amoebae (FLA) in natural hot springs: a systematic review
Mary Rachael Leigh Fabros, Xyleen Rianne Shae Diesta, John Anthony Oronan, Kim Sofia Verdejo, Joe-Anna Sheilla Marie Garcia, Ma. Sophia Romey, Giovanni De Jesus Milanez
Journal of Water and Health.2021; 19(4): 563. CrossRef
Various brain-eating amoebae: the protozoa, the pathogenesis, and the disease
Hongze Zhang, Xunjia Cheng
Frontiers of Medicine.2021; 15(6): 842. CrossRef
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Xia Wu, Gangfeng Yan, Shuzhen Han, Yingzi Ye, Xunjia Cheng, Hairong Gong, Hui Yu
Emerging Microbes & Infections.2020; 9(1): 1379. CrossRef
Discovery of Anti-Amoebic Inhibitors from Screening the MMV Pandemic Response Box on Balamuthia mandrillaris, Naegleria fowleri, and Acanthamoeba castellanii
Christopher A. Rice, Emma V. Troth, A. Cassiopeia Russell, Dennis E. Kyle
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“Proposals for Amendments in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Encephalitis caused by Free-living Amoebae”
Abdul Mannan Baig
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Lei Wang, Wenjing Cheng, Bing Li, Zhe Jian, Xianlong Qi, Dongjie Sun, Jian Gao, Xuetao Lu, Yi Yang, Kun Lin, Chuanlong Lu, Jiaxi Chen, Chunying Li, Gang Wang, Tianwen Gao
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Balamuthia mandrillaris Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis With Renal Dissemination in a Previously Healthy Child: Case Report and Review of the Pediatric Literature
Kareem W Shehab, Khalid Aboul-Nasr, Sean P Elliott
Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society.2018; 7(3): e163. CrossRef
Functional Assessment of 2,177 U.S. and International Drugs Identifies the Quinoline Nitroxoline as a Potent Amoebicidal Agent against the Pathogen Balamuthia mandrillaris
Matthew T. Laurie, Corin V. White, Hanna Retallack, Wesley Wu, Matthew S. Moser, Judy A. Sakanari, Kenny Ang, Christopher Wilson, Michelle R. Arkin, Joseph L. DeRisi, Bonnie Bassler, Ibne Ali, Timothy Geary
mBio.2018;[Epub] CrossRef
Amoebic meningoencephalitis and disseminated infection caused by Balamuthia mandrillaris in a Western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)
Jenessa L. Gjeltema, Brigid Troan, Atis Muehlenbachs, Lindy Liu, Alexandre J. Da Silva, Yvonne Qvarnstrom, Jeremy R. Tobias, Michael R. Loomis, Ryan S. De Voe
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Denouement

Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal.2014; 33(9): 995. CrossRef
Balamuthia mandrillaris in South America: An emerging potential hidden pathogen in Perú
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Is Balamuthia mandrillaris a public health concern worldwide?
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Original Article

Comparative Efficacy of Ivermectin and Levamisole for Reduction of Migrating and Encapsulated Larvae of Baylisascaris transfuga in Mice: Yan Fu, Hua-Ming Nie, Li-Li Niu, Yue Xie, Jia-Bo Deng, Qiang Wang, Guang-You Yang, Xiao-Bin Gu, Shu-Xian Wang; Korean J Parasitol 2011;49(2):145-151.
Published online June 14, 2011; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3347/kjp.2011.49.2.145

Abstract
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The comparative efficacy of 2 anthelmintics (ivermectin and levamisole) against Baylisascaris transfuga migrating and encapsulated larvae was studied in mice. A total of 60 BALB/c mice inoculated each with about 1,000 embryonated B. transfuga eggs were equally divided into 6 groups (A-F) randomly. Mice of groups A and B were treated with ivermectin and levamisole, respectively, on day 3 post-infection (PI). Mice of groups A-C were killed on day 13 PI. Similarly, groups D and E were treated with ivermectin and levamisole, respectively, on day 14 PI, and all mice of groups D-F were treated on day 24 PI. The groups C and F were controls. Microexamination was conducted to count the larvae recovering from each mouse. The percentages of reduction in the number of migrating larvae recovered from group A (ivermectin) and B (levamisole) were 88.3% and 81.1%, respectively. In addition, the reduction in encapsulated larvae counts achieved by ivermectin (group D) and levamisole (group E) was 75.0% and 49.2%, respectively. The results suggested that, to a certain extent, both anthelmintics appeared to be more effective against migrating larvae than encapsulated larvae. However, in the incipient stage of infection, ivermectin may be more competent than levamisole as a larvicidal drug for B. transfuga.

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Rosmarinic acid improves cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in mice by immunomodulatory and antioxidant effects
Yi-Lun Wang, Wan Ni
Food Bioscience.2023; 56: 103152. CrossRef
Survey on gastro-intestinal parasites of captive sun bears in Malaysia
S.S. Abdul-Mawah, Y. Norma-Rashid, R. Ramli
Ursus.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
Chromosome‐scale assembly and whole‐genome sequencing of 266 giant panda roundworms provide insights into their evolution, adaptation and potential drug targets
Lei Han, Tianming Lan, Desheng Li, Haimeng Li, Linhua Deng, Zhiwei Peng, Shaowen He, Yanqiang Zhou, Ruobing Han, Lingling Li, Yaxian Lu, Haorong Lu, Qing Wang, Shangchen Yang, Yixin Zhu, Yunting Huang, Xiaofang Cheng, Jieyao Yu, Yulong Wang, Heting Sun, H
Molecular Ecology Resources.2022; 22(2): 768. CrossRef
Beyond the raccoon roundworm: The natural history of non-raccoon Baylisascaris species in the New World
Sarah G.H. Sapp, Pooja Gupta, Melissa K. Martin, Maureen H. Murray, Kevin D. Niedringhaus, Madeleine A. Pfaff, Michael J. Yabsley
International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife.2017; 6(2): 85. CrossRef
Update on Baylisascariasis, a Highly Pathogenic Zoonotic Infection
Carlos Graeff-Teixeira, Alessandra Loureiro Morassutti, Kevin R. Kazacos
Clinical Microbiology Reviews.2016; 29(2): 375. CrossRef
Cloning and characterization of a novel sigma-like glutathione S-transferase from the giant panda parasitic nematode, Baylisascaris schroederi
Yue Xie, Xuan Zhou, Lin Chen, Zhihe Zhang, Chengdong Wang, Xiaobin Gu, Tao Wang, Xuerong Peng, Guangyou Yang
Parasites & Vectors.2015;[Epub] CrossRef