Trichomonas vaginalis is a flagellated protozoan that causes trichomoniasis, a common nonviral sexually transmitted infection. T. vaginalis infection is asymptomatic in most infected men but can lead to chronic infection. The inflammatory response to chronic T. vaginalis infection may contribute to prostatic diseases, such as prostatitis and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH); however, studies on the relationship between T. vaginalis infection and prostate diseases are scarce. In this review, we discuss evidence from our studies on the involvement of T. vaginalis in the pathogenesis of prostate diseases, such as prostatitis and BPH. Studies of prostatitis have demonstrated that the attachment of T. vaginalis trophozoite to prostate epithelial cells (PECs) induces inflammatory cytokine production and inflammatory cell migration, leading to prostatitis. T. vaginalis also causes pathological changes, such as inflammatory cell infiltration, acinar changes, interstitial fibrosis, and mast cell infiltration, in prostate tissues of infected rats. Thus, T. vaginalis is considered an infectious agent that triggers prostatitis. Meanwhile, studies of prostatic hyperplasia revealed that mast cells activated by T. vaginalis-infected prostate cells secreted inflammatory mediators, such as β-hexosaminidase and tryptase, which promoted proliferation of prostate stromal cell (PSC). Moreover, interleukin-6 produced by proliferating PSCs induced the multiplication of BPH-1 epithelial cells as a result of stromal–epithelial interaction, suggesting that the proliferation of T. vaginalis-infected prostate cells can be induced through crosstalk with mast cells. These collective findings suggest that T. vaginalis contributes to the progression of prostatitis and prostatic hyperplasia by creating an inflammatory microenvironment involving PECs and PSCs.
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Leptin is a type of adipokine mainly produced by adipocytes and reported to be overproduced in prostate cancer. However, it is not known whether it stimulates the proliferation of prostate cells. In this study, we investigated whether benign prostatic hyperplasia epithelial cells (BPH-1 cells) infected with Trichomonas vaginalis induced the proliferation of prostate cells via a leptin signaling pathway. To investigate the effect of crosstalk between adipocyte leptin and inflamed epithelial cell in proliferation of prostate cells, adipocytes 3T3-L1 cells were incubated in conditioned medium of BPH-1 cells infected with T. vaginalis (T. vaginalis-conditioned medium, TCM), and then the adipocyte-conditioned medium (ATCM) was identified to cause proliferation of prostate cells. BPH-1 cells incubated with live T. vaginalis released pro-inflammatory cytokines, and conditioned medium of these cells caused migration of adipocytes. When prostate stromal cells and BPH-1 cells were incubated with adipocyte conditioned medium containing leptin, their growth rates increased as did expression of the leptin receptor (known as OBR) and signaling molecules such as JAK2/STAT3, Notch and survivin. Moreover, blocking the OBR reduced this proliferation and the expression of leptin signaling molecules in response to ATCM. In conclusion, our findings show that inflamed BPH-1 cells infected with T. vaginalis induce the proliferation of prostate cells through leptin-OBR signaling. Therefore, it is likely that T. vaginalis contributes to prostate enlargement in BPH via adipocyte leptin released as a result of inflammation of the prostate.
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Jong-Hyun Kim, Sang-Hee Lee, Hae-Jin Sohn, Jinyoung Lee, Yong-Joon Chwae, Sun Park, Kyongmin Kim, Ho-Joon Shin Parasitology Research.2012; 111(6): 2377. CrossRef
Naegleria fowleriLysate Induces Strong Cytopathic Effects and Pro-inflammatory Cytokine Release in Rat Microglial Cells Yang-Jin Lee, Chang-Eun Park, Jong-Hyun Kim, Hae-Jin Sohn, Jinyoung Lee, Suk-Yul Jung, Ho-Joon Shin The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2011; 49(3): 285. CrossRef
Effects of immunization with the rNfa1 protein on experimental Naegleria fowleri‐PAM mice Y. J. LEE, J. H. KIM, H. J. SOHN, J. LEE, S. Y. JUNG, Y. J. CHWAE, K. KIM, S. PARK, H. J. SHIN Parasite Immunology.2011; 33(7): 382. CrossRef
Thenfa1Gene Contributed on the Contact-dependent Pathogenic Mechanisms ofNaegleria fowleri Ho-Joon Shin Hanyang Medical Reviews.2010; 30(3): 204. CrossRef
Gene silencing of nfa1 affects the in vitro cytotoxicity of Naegleria fowleri in murine macrophages Suk-Yul Jung, Jong-Hyun Kim, Kyoung-Ju Song, Yang-Jin Lee, Myung-Hee Kwon, Kyongmin Kim, Sun Park, Kyung-il Im, Ho-Joon Shin Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology.2009; 165(1): 87. CrossRef
Immunodominant antigens in Naegleria fowleri excretory–secretory proteins were potential pathogenic factors Jong-Hyun Kim, Ae-Hee Yang, Hae-Jin Sohn, Daesik Kim, Kyoung-Ju Song, Ho-Joon Shin Parasitology Research.2009; 105(6): 1675. CrossRef
Contact-Independent Cell Death of Human Microglial Cells due to Pathogenic Naegleria fowleri Trophozoites Jong-Hyun Kim, Daesik Kim, Ho-Joon Shin The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2008; 46(4): 217. CrossRef
Naegleria fowleri: nfa1 gene knock-down by double-stranded RNAs Suk-Yul Jung, Jong-Hyun Kim, Yang-Jin Lee, Kyoung-Ju Song, Kyongmin Kim, Sun Park, Kyung-il Im, Ho-Joon Shin Experimental Parasitology.2008; 118(2): 208. CrossRef
Heat shock protein 70 of Naegleria fowleri is important factor for proliferation and in vitro cytotoxicity Kyoung-Ju Song, Kyung-Hui Song, Jong-Hyun Kim, Hae-Jin Sohn, Yang-Jin Lee, Chang-Eun Park, Ho-Joon Shin Parasitology Research.2008; 103(2): 313. CrossRef
Therapeutic effect of rokitamycin in vitro and on experimental meningoencephalitis due to Naegleria fowleri Jong-Hyun Kim, Yang-Jin Lee, Hae-Jin Sohn, Kyoung-Ju Song, Daeho Kwon, Myung-Hee Kwon, Kyung-Il Im, Ho-Joon Shin International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents.2008; 32(5): 411. CrossRef
Effect of Therapeutic Chemical Agents In Vitro and on Experimental Meningoencephalitis Due toNaegleria fowleri Jong-Hyun Kim, Suk-Yul Jung, Yang-Jin Lee, Kyoung-Ju Song, Daeho Kwon, Kyongmin Kim, Sun Park, Kyung-Il Im, Ho-Joon Shin Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.2008; 52(11): 4010. CrossRef
Production of Nfa1-specific monoclonal antibodies that influences the in vitro cytotoxicity of Naegleria fowleri trophozoites on microglial cells Yang-Jin Lee, Jong-Hyun Kim, Seok-Ryoul Jeong, Kyoung-Ju Song, Kyongmin Kim, Sun Park, Moon-Sung Park, Ho-Joon Shin Parasitology Research.2007; 101(5): 1191. CrossRef
Naegleria fowleri: Functional expression of the Nfa1 protein in transfected Naegleria gruberi by promoter modification Kyoung-Ju Song, Seok-Ryoul Jeong, Sun Park, Kyongmin Kim, Myung-Hee Kwon, Kyung-Il Im, Jhang Ho Pak, Ho-Joon Shin Experimental Parasitology.2006; 112(2): 115. CrossRef
Cytopathic changes and pro‐inflammatory cytokines induced by Naegleria fowleri trophozoites in rat microglial cells and protective effects of an anti‐Nfa1 antibody Y.‐H. OH, S.‐R. JEONG, J.‐H. KIM, K.‐J. SONG, K. KIM, S. PARK, S. SOHN, H.‐J. SHIN Parasite Immunology.2005; 27(12): 453. CrossRef
Expression of the
nfa1
Gene Cloned from Pathogenic
Naegleria fowleri
in Nonpathogenic
N. gruberi
Enhances Cytotoxicity against CHO Target Cells In Vitro
Seok-Ryoul Jeong, Sang-Chul Lee, Kyoung-Ju Song, Sun Park, Kyongmin Kim, Myung-Hee Kwon, Kyung-il Im, Ho-Joon Shin Infection and Immunity.2005; 73(7): 4098. CrossRef
Role of the Nfa1 Protein in Pathogenic
Naegleria fowleri
Cocultured with CHO Target Cells
Su-Yeon Kang, Kyoung-Ju Song, Seok-Ryoul Jeong, Jong-Hyun Kim, Sun Park, Kyongmin Kim, Myung-Hee Kwon, Ho-Joon Shin Clinical and Vaccine Immunology.2005; 12(7): 873. CrossRef
Pneumocystis carinii is a pulmonary pathogen of immunocompromised humans or other mammals. Its infection results from activation of organisms involved in latent infection or from new infection through the air. Almost all children are known to be infected within 2 to 4 years of birth, though prenatal transplacental transmission has not yet been demonstrated. In this study we observed experimental P. carinii infection in neonatal rats, thus investigating the possibility of transplacental vertical transmission by Diff-Quik staining of the lung impression smears and in-situ hybridization for lung sections. The positive rate of P. carinii infection in immunosuppressed maternal rats was 100%, but that in normal maternal rats was 0%. Cystic forms of P. carinii were observed in three of six 1-week old neonatal rats born of heavily infected mothers, but none of them was positive by in-situ hybridization. Five weeks after birth, cystic forms were detected in four neonatal rats. In the lobes of the lungs, no predilection site of P. carinii was recognized. Counts of cystic forms on smears and the reactivity of in-situ hybridization in the lungs of neonatal rats were significantly lower than in maternal rats. The present findings suggest that P. carinii is rarely transmitted through the placenta and proliferates less successfully in the lungs of neonatal rats than in mothers.
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Early Acquisition of
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in Neonatal Rats as Evidenced by PCR and Oral Swabs
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Localization of cytoskeletal proteins in Pneumocystis carinii by immuno-electron microscopy Jae-Ran Yu, Jae-Kyong Pyon, Min Seo, Byung-Suk Jung, Sang Rock Cho, Soon-Hyung Lee, Sung-Tae Hong The Korean Journal of Parasitology.2001; 39(1): 13. CrossRef
Early Acquisition of Pneumocystis carinii in Neonatal Rats using Targeted PCR and Oral Swabs CRYSTAL R. ICENHOUR, SANDRA L. REBHOLZ, MARGARET S. COLLINS, MELANIE T. CUSHION Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology.2001;[Epub] CrossRef
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